16:10-11 the throne of the beast: John might be alluding to Rome, the political power of his time. Built on seven hills (17:9), Rome’s empire spanned the sea (13:1) and ruled the world (13:7). • plunged into darkness: Similar to the ninth plague of Egypt (Exod 10:22) and to the fourth trumpet (Rev 8:12). • ground their teeth [literally gnawed their tongues] . . . cursed the God of heaven: Both pain and hostility motivated these responses to punishment (cp. Matt 8:12; 13:42, 50; 22:13; 24:51; 25:30; Luke 13:28).

16:12 The Euphrates, the largest river in Mesopotamia, stood between Babylon and Israel and formed the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. If it dried up, it would allow kings from the east to move their armies westward (cp. 9:13-16). From John’s perspective as an ancient Jewish writer, these armies would always be identified with Mesopotamia rather than with countries farther east such as China or India.